A Kingdom Divided: The War of Absalom and Achitophel.



This blog is a part of Thinking activity on The Puritan and Restoration Age assigned by Dr. and Prof. Dilip Barad sir where we have been provided with some questions to imply our thinking and understanding of these ages.

                     

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Mind Map- Absalom and Achitophel

Introduction

John Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel (1681) is one of the most important works of political satire in English literature. Written during the turbulent period of the late seventeenth century, the poem reflects not just Dryden’s literary mastery but also his ability to transform contemporary politics into enduring art. By drawing upon biblical allegory, Dryden cleverly comments on the political crisis of his age, particularly the Exclusion Crisis, which attempted to bar James, Duke of York (a Catholic), from succeeding his brother Charles II to the throne. Through this allegorical retelling, Dryden dramatizes the conflict between loyalty and ambition, monarchy and rebellion, truth and manipulation. The poem is not just a literary masterpiece but also a sharp political commentary, cementing Dryden’s place as the foremost satirist of the Restoration era.

Basic Information

Absalom and Achitophel was written by John Dryden, one of the greatest poets, critics, and dramatists of the seventeenth century. It is a satirical poem, composed in the highly polished form of heroic couplets (pairs of rhymed iambic pentameter lines). First published in 1681, the poem belongs to the genre of verse satire, combining wit, irony, and biblical allegory to expose political corruption and personal ambition.

Dryden’s poem is set in biblical Israel, where King David’s beloved son Absalom, influenced by the cunning Achitophel, rebels against his father. However, this story is not told for its religious value alone it is an allegory of seventeenth-century England. King David represents Charles II, Absalom represents the king’s illegitimate but popular son, the Duke of Monmouth, and Achitophel represents the crafty Earl of Shaftesbury, who sought to exploit Monmouth’s popularity to undermine the succession of James, Duke of York.

Thus, Dryden takes a biblical narrative and transforms it into a political fable, allowing him to critique real figures and events under the protective cover of allegory. At the same time, the poem showcases Dryden’s mastery of satirical wit, balanced verse, and his ability to shape political propaganda into enduring literature.

The Second Part:

A second part of Absalom and Achitophel was published in 1682, one year after the first part. This continuation was written mainly by Nahum Tate, a poet and playwright of the Restoration era. However, Dryden himself contributed about 200 lines to this sequel.

Dryden’s contribution is especially important because, in these lines, he directly attacked his literary enemies. While the first part of the poem focused mainly on political satire using biblical allegory to expose the ambitions of the Earl of Shaftesbury and the rebellion led by the Duke of Monmouth the second part added a new layer of personal satire. Here, Dryden used his sharp wit and mastery of verse to ridicule and silence those who had criticized him in pamphlets and poetry.

Although the second part is not considered as artistically powerful as the original poem, it helped to reinforce Dryden’s authority both as a political poet and as the leading satirist of his age. By collaborating with Nahum Tate, Dryden also showed how poetry could continue to serve as a tool for defending monarchy, order, and his own literary reputation.

Historical and Political Context of Absalom and Achitophel

The Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681):  The immediate political background of Absalom and Achitophel was the Exclusion Crisis, a heated political struggle in England between 1679 and 1681. This crisis arose because James, Duke of York, the brother of King Charles II, had converted to Roman Catholicism. Many in Protestant England feared that allowing James to inherit the throne would re-establish Catholic power and threaten English liberties. Anti-Catholic politicians, led by Anthony Ashley Cooper, the Earl of Shaftesbury, worked to pass legislation that would exclude James from the succession. On the other hand, Charles II firmly opposed this exclusion, defending his brother’s rightful claim.

Dryden’s poem enters into this political battleground. By retelling the biblical story of Absalom’s rebellion against his father David, Dryden allegorizes the Exclusion Crisis. King David = Charles II, Absalom = the Duke of Monmouth (Charles’s illegitimate but Protestant and popular son), and Achitophel = Shaftesbury. Through this allegory, Dryden exposes the dangers of political ambition and disloyalty, showing how Shaftesbury manipulates Monmouth to pursue rebellion against his own father.

The Popish Plot (1678):-
The poem also alludes to the Popish Plot of 1678, a fabricated Catholic conspiracy to assassinate King Charles II and place James, Duke of York, on the throne. The story was concocted by Titus Oates, whose false testimony caused widespread panic across England. Although the plot was later exposed as a hoax, it triggered a wave of anti-Catholic hysteria, including executions of innocent Catholics and a strengthening of the Exclusion movement.

Dryden uses the allegorical form of his poem to reference the chaos brought about by the Popish Plot. In doing so, he underscores the destructive power of rumor, manipulation, and false testimony, showing how lies can endanger political stability. The reference also reflects Dryden’s broader concern with truth versus deceit—a central theme in satire.

The Monmouth Rebellion (1685):
Although the Monmouth Rebellion occurred after the poem’s publication, Dryden’s work anticipates it in many ways. In 1685, James Scott, Duke of Monmouth (the historical counterpart to Absalom), led an unsuccessful rebellion against King James II, Charles II’s brother and successor. Dryden’s poem, published four years earlier, had already warned of the dangers of allowing ambition and faction to lead Monmouth astray. By showing Absalom as a misguided figure seduced by Achitophel, Dryden foreshadowed the tragic futility of Monmouth’s real-life rebellion, which ended with his capture and execution.

Political Motivation:
Dryden’s chief political motivation in writing Absalom and Achitophel was to support King Charles II and defend the Duke of York’s right to succession. At the time of writing in 1681, the threat of revolution loomed large: Parliament was dominated by the exclusionists, London was restless with anti-Catholic sentiment, and Shaftesbury was stirring opposition against the monarchy. Dryden, serving as Poet Laureate and loyal to the Crown, used his literary skills to intervene in the political debate.

His poem acts as a propaganda weapon, ridiculing the exclusionists while portraying Charles II as a wise and merciful king. At the same time, it highlights the dangers of rebellion and factionalism, presenting them as sins against both God and the natural order. In this sense, Absalom and Achitophel is not only a masterpiece of satire but also a political defense of monarchy during one of the most unstable moments in seventeenth-century England.

The Allegorical Framework of Absalom and Achitophel

Biblical Foundation:
Dryden structures his poem on a biblical narrative recorded in 2 Samuel 13–19, which tells the story of King David and his beloved but rebellious son Absalom. In the Bible, Absalom is portrayed as strikingly handsome and popular among the people of Israel. However, he is ultimately seduced into rebellion by Achitophel, a cunning and treacherous advisor, who encourages him to seize power from his father. The rebellion fails, and Absalom meets a tragic death.

By retelling this story, Dryden establishes a moral and religious framework for his political satire. The rebellion of a son against his father is cast not only as a political crime but also as a violation of divine order. This biblical grounding allowed Dryden to give his contemporary political commentary a timeless moral weight.

Contemporary Equivalents:
The brilliance of Dryden’s satire lies in his ability to map biblical figures onto real political characters in seventeenth-century England. Each major figure in the poem has a clear allegorical counterpart:

Absalom = James Scott, Duke of Monmouth
Just as Absalom is David’s beloved but illegitimate son, Monmouth was Charles II’s illegitimate but much-adored son. His Protestant faith made him especially popular among those who opposed the Catholic Duke of York’s succession.

Achitophel = Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury
Shaftesbury was the leading voice of the Exclusion movement, using his wit, influence, and ambition to push Monmouth forward as a possible alternative heir. Like the biblical Achitophel, Shaftesbury is portrayed as manipulative, cunning, and dangerously persuasive.

David = King Charles II
In Dryden’s poem, Charles II appears in the guise of the biblical King David: wise, merciful, and dignified, yet troubled by rebellion within his own household. By making this comparison, Dryden flatters the king and presents loyalty to him as divinely sanctioned.

This allegorical mapping transforms what might have been ordinary political pamphleteering into a powerful literary fable.

Monmouth’s Legitimacy
A crucial issue in the Exclusion Crisis, and in Dryden’s allegory, was the uncertainty surrounding the Duke of Monmouth’s legitimacy. Monmouth’s mother was Lucy Walter, a mistress of Charles II. Rumors circulated that Charles had secretly married Lucy Walter, which, if true, would make Monmouth a legitimate heir to the throne. The absence of a direct heir from Charles’s marriage to Catherine of Braganza, who was childless, further fueled these speculations.

The possibility of Monmouth’s legitimacy was a central hope for the exclusionists, who wished to replace the Catholic Duke of York with a Protestant heir. However, Charles II himself consistently denied these rumors and never recognized Monmouth as legitimate.

Dryden uses the figure of Absalom to emphasize Monmouth’s dangerous ambition and misplaced trust in Shaftesbury’s counsel. While Absalom is portrayed with some sympathy as a young man caught between loyalty and ambition the poem makes clear that his rebellion is misguided and doomed, just as Monmouth’s real-life attempt would later prove in the Monmouth Rebellion of 1685.

Key Themes in Absalom and Achitophel

Politics, Allegory, and Satire:
At its core, Absalom and Achitophel is a political poem, crafted to intervene in one of the most turbulent controversies of Restoration England: the Exclusion Crisis. Dryden uses biblical allegory to veil his commentary on real figures like Charles II, Shaftesbury, and Monmouth. This technique allows him to write about sensitive issues with a protective layer of scriptural authority. The poem becomes both a literary work and a satirical pamphlet, mocking political opportunists while defending royal authority. Dryden’s wit, irony, and ridicule elevate the satire beyond propaganda, transforming it into enduring literature.

God, Religion, and the Divine Right of Kings:
Another key theme is the connection between politics and religion. Dryden portrays Charles II, under the guise of King David, as a monarch chosen by God. The rebellion against him is framed as not merely political disobedience but also as an act of spiritual defiance. In the seventeenth century, the idea of the Divine Right of Kings was still powerful: kings ruled by God’s will, and rebellion was a sin against divine order. By embedding this belief into the poem, Dryden reinforces the legitimacy of Charles II and discredits the exclusionists as ungodly rebels.

Power and Ambition:
The theme of ambition is central to both the biblical story and its political allegory. Absalom (Monmouth) is portrayed as handsome, popular, and beloved, but his ambition makes him vulnerable to Achitophel’s manipulations. Achitophel (Shaftesbury) embodies political cunning and ruthless ambition, seeking to advance his own cause by exploiting Absalom’s charm. Dryden shows that unchecked ambition leads to rebellion, betrayal, and ultimately destruction. The poem thus serves as a moral warning against placing personal power above loyalty to king and country.

Erosion of Values:
Perhaps one of the most important themes of the poem is the erosion of traditional values in political life. The England of Dryden’s time was marked by suspicion, factionalism, and manipulation, especially after the hysteria of the Popish Plot. In the poem, Dryden depicts a society where loyalty is corrupted by ambition, where truth is drowned in rumor, and where honor is replaced by opportunism. Achitophel embodies this erosion: once a respected counselor, he abandons wisdom for selfish scheming. Absalom, too, is seduced into rebelling against natural bonds of duty between father and son. By highlighting this decline of moral and civic virtue, Dryden presents the Exclusion Crisis not merely as a political disagreement but as a symptom of deeper cultural decay. The message is clear: without loyalty, truth, and respect for divine order, society itself begins to disintegrate.

The Power of Poetry:
Finally, the poem itself demonstrates the power of poetry in shaping public opinion and defending political causes. Dryden was not only writing as a poet but also as the Poet Laureate, whose role was to support the monarchy through verse. Absalom and Achitophel shows how satire could be more effective than sermons or speeches: poetry had the ability to mock opponents into ridicule, elevate the king’s image, and preserve political truths in memorable lines. By turning politics into literature, Dryden ensured that his defense of Charles II and his attack on Shaftesbury would be remembered long after pamphlets and speeches had faded. The poem thus reflects the Restoration belief in poetry as a weapon of persuasion and cultural authority.

Character Studies in Absalom and Achitophel

Absalom (James Scott, Duke of Monmouth)

Biblical Context: In the Bible, Absalom is King David’s handsome and beloved son, admired by the people of Israel for his beauty and charm. However, he allows himself to be misled by Achitophel into rebelling against his father, which leads to his tragic downfall.

Allegorical Role: In Dryden’s poem, Absalom symbolizes James Scott, Duke of Monmouth, the illegitimate son of Charles II. Like Absalom, Monmouth was extremely popular with the people, especially because of his Protestant faith, which made him a strong alternative to the Catholic Duke of York.

Real Context: Dryden portrays Absalom/Monmouth as noble and attractive but ultimately misguided. He is sympathetic yet flawed: a young man caught between loyalty to his father and the temptation of ambition. The allegory warns that personal charm and public favor are dangerous when detached from loyalty and duty.

Achitophel (Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury)

Biblical Context: Achitophel was King David’s trusted counselor in the Bible, renowned for his wisdom, but he betrayed David by advising Absalom to rebel. His treachery is remembered as one of the most infamous acts of betrayal in scripture.

Allegorical Role: In the poem, Achitophel represents the Earl of Shaftesbury, leader of the Exclusionists and one of the most dangerous political figures of the time. Like his biblical counterpart, he is clever, persuasive, and skilled in manipulation.

Real Context: Dryden depicts Achitophel/Shaftesbury as the villain of the poem: a man who uses his intelligence not for the stability of the kingdom but to spread discontent and exploit Monmouth’s popularity for his own ambitions. Through him, Dryden criticizes the erosion of political values and the dangers of unscrupulous leadership.

David (King Charles II)

Biblical Context: In scripture, King David is a wise, merciful, and God-chosen ruler, though troubled by the rebellion of his own son. Despite Absalom’s betrayal, David remains patient and dignified, embodying the ideal of a divinely ordained king.

Allegorical Role: In Dryden’s allegory, David represents Charles II, the reigning monarch of England during the Exclusion Crisis. Like David, Charles is portrayed as merciful and reluctant to punish those who rebel against him.

Real Context: Dryden flatters Charles II by casting him in the image of David, suggesting that his rule is both divinely sanctioned and morally just. The king’s patience, wisdom, and unwillingness to act rashly contrast with the reckless ambition of his enemies. Through David/Charles, Dryden reinforces the central political message of the poem: loyalty to the monarch is both a civic and religious duty.

Why Absalom and Achitophel is a Verse Satire

John Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel is called a verse satire because it combines the sharpness of satire with the polished structure of verse (poetry), specifically heroic couplets. Let’s break this down:

1. Satirical Purpose

The poem’s chief aim is not only to narrate but also to criticize and expose.

Dryden mocks and condemns political figures particularly Shaftesbury (Achitophel) by portraying them as treacherous, ambitious, and dangerous.

He also ridicules the gullibility of the public and the opportunism of politicians.

Like all satire, it seeks to correct folly and vice by exposing them through ridicule.

2. Use of Verse

Unlike prose satires or pamphlets, Dryden writes in heroic couplets (pairs of rhymed iambic pentameter lines).

This poetic form gives the satire a dignified, balanced, and polished tone, making the attacks more cutting and memorable.

The rhythm and rhyme sharpen the wit, giving Dryden’s criticisms both elegance and sting.

3. Allegorical Satire

Dryden does not name Shaftesbury, Monmouth, or Charles II directly; instead, he uses biblical allegory (Achitophel, Absalom, David).

This is a classic satirical technique: to disguise criticism of real people through symbolic characters.

The allegory gives the satire a universal dimension, while still being rooted in contemporary politics.

4. Blend of Wit and Moral Purpose

Satire is not just about laughter it has a moral aim. Dryden shows that political ambition, betrayal, and rebellion are destructive not only to the state but also to moral order.

By ridiculing Shaftesbury and warning Monmouth, Dryden reinforces values like loyalty, truth, and obedience to the rightful king.

Conclusion

John Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel stands as the finest example of political verse satire in English literature because it blends history, politics, religion, and poetry into a unified whole. By drawing on the biblical story of Absalom’s rebellion against King David, Dryden creates an allegorical framework that allows him to disguise but also expose the real tensions of his time the Exclusion Crisis, the Popish Plot, and the looming threat of rebellion.

Through his character portraits, Dryden casts Charles II (David) as the wise, God-ordained monarch, Monmouth (Absalom) as the misguided but beloved son tempted by ambition, and Shaftesbury (Achitophel) as the cunning instigator of discord. These allegories give the poem its moral weight, presenting rebellion not only as political disobedience but as a violation of divine order.

The poem’s themes political ambition, the divine right of kings, the erosion of values, and the persuasive power of poetry reveal Dryden’s dual purpose: to defend monarchy during a time of crisis and to expose the vanity and corruption of factional politics. His use of heroic couplets sharpens the satire, making it memorable, elegant, and biting. Even the second part, though largely written by Nahum Tate, shows how Dryden wielded poetry as a weapon of wit and authority against his political and literary enemies.

In the end, Absalom and Achitophel is not just a poem about one political episode it is a timeless meditation on loyalty, power, and human weakness. By transforming contemporary events into biblical allegory, Dryden elevated political propaganda into enduring literature, proving the unmatched power of poetry to shape public opinion and preserve historical memory.

References-

 Barad, Dilip. "Absalom and Achitophel: Worksheet." Dilip Barad | Teacher Blog, 4  January  2021.  https://blog.dilipbarad.com/2021/01/absalom-and-achitophel-worksheet.html    

Dryden,  John. Absalom  and  Achitophel.  First  published  1681. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Absalom-and-Achitophel     

The  Holy  Bible. 2  Samuel  chapters  13–19. https://bible.usccb.org/bible/2samuel/13